Recognizing International Guidelines for Tech Disposal

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Waste management or waste disposal includes the processes and actions required to manage waste from its inception to its final disposal.^[1] This includes the collection, transport, treatment, and disposal of waste, together with monitoring and regulation of the waste management process and waste-related laws, technologies, and economic mechanisms.

Waste can either be solid, liquid, or gases and each type has different methods of disposal and management. Waste management deals with all types of waste, including industrial, biological, household, municipal, organic, biomedical, radioactive wastes. In some cases, waste can pose a threat to human health.^[2] Health issues are associated with the entire process of waste management. Health issues can also arise indirectly or directly: directly through the handling of solid waste, and indirectly through the consumption of water, soil, and food.^[2] Waste is produced by human activity, for example, the extraction and processing of raw materials.^[3] Waste management is intended to reduce the adverse effects of waste on human health, the environment, planetary resources, and aesthetics.

The aim of waste management is to reduce the dangerous effects of such waste on the environment and human health. A big part of waste management deals with municipal solid waste, which is created by industrial, commercial, and household activity.^[4]

Waste management practices are not the same across countries (developed and developing nations); regions (urban and rural areas), and residential and industrial sectors can all take different approaches.^[5]

Proper management of waste is important for building sustainable and liveable cities, but it remains a challenge for many developing countries and cities. A report found that effective waste management is relatively expensive, usually comprising 20%–50% of municipal budgets. Operating this essential municipal service requires integrated systems that are efficient, sustainable, and socially supported.^[6] A large portion of waste management practices deal with municipal solid waste (MSW) which is the bulk of the waste that is created by household, industrial, and commercial activity.^[7] According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), municipal solid waste is expected to reach approximately 3.4 Gt by 2050; however, policies and lawmaking can reduce the amount of waste produced in different areas and cities of the world.^[8] Measures of waste management include measures for integrated techno-economic mechanisms^[9] of a circular economy, effective disposal facilities, export and import control^[10][11] and optimal sustainable design of products that are produced.

In the first systematic review of the scientific evidence around global waste, its management, and its impact on human health and life, authors concluded that about a fourth of all the municipal solid terrestrial waste is not collected and an additional fourth is mismanaged after collection, often being burned in open and uncontrolled fires – or close to one billion tons per year when combined. They also found that broad priority areas each lack a "high-quality research base", partly due to the absence of "substantial research funding", which motivated scientists often require.^[12][13] Electronic waste (ewaste) includes discarded computer monitors, motherboards, mobile phones and chargers, compact discs (CDs), headphones, television sets, air conditioners and refrigerators. According to the Global E-waste Monitor 2017, India generates ~ 2 million tonnes (Mte) of e-waste annually and ranks fifth among the e-waste producing countries, after the United States, the People's Republic of China, Japan and Germany.^[14]

Effective 'Waste Management' involves the practice of '7R' - 'R'efuse, 'R'educe', 'R'euse, 'R'epair, 'R'epurpose, 'R'ecycle and 'R'ecover. Amongst these '7R's, the first two ('Refuse' and 'Reduce') relate to the non-creation of waste - by refusing to buy non-essential products and by reducing consumption. The next two ('Reuse' and 'Repair') refer to increasing the usage of the existing product, with or without the substitution of certain parts of the product. 'Repurpose' and 'Recycle' involve maximum usage of the materials used in the product, and 'Recover' is the least preferred and least efficient waste management practice involving the recovery of embedded energy in the waste material. For example, burning the waste to produce heat (and electricity from heat). Certain non-biodegradable products are also dumped away as 'Disposal', and this is not a "waste-'management'" practice.^[15]

The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" Reduce, Reuse and Recycle, which classifies waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimisation. The waste hierarchy is the bedrock of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of end waste; see: resource recovery.^[16][17] The waste hierarchy is represented as a pyramid because the basic premise is that policies should promote measures to prevent the generation of waste. The next step or preferred action is to seek alternative uses for the waste that has been generated, i.e., by re-use. The next is recycling which includes composting. Following this step is material recovery and waste-to-energy. The final action is disposal, in landfills or through incineration without energy recovery. This last step is the final resort for waste that has not been prevented, diverted, or recovered.^{[18][page needed]} The waste hierarchy represents the progression of a product or material through the sequential stages of the pyramid of waste management. The hierarchy represents the latter parts of the life-cycle for each product.^[19]

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The life-cycle of a product, often referred to as the product lifecycle, encompasses several key stages that begin with the design phase and proceed through manufacture, distribution, and primary use. After these initial stages, the product moves through the waste hierarchy's stages of reduce, reuse, and recycle. Each phase in this lifecycle presents unique opportunities for policy intervention, allowing stakeholders to rethink the necessity of the product, redesign it to minimize its waste potential, and extend its useful life.

During the design phase, considerations can be made to ensure that products are created with fewer resources, are more durable, and are easier to repair or recycle. This stage is critical for embedding sustainability into the product from the outset. Designers can select materials that have lower environmental impacts and create products that require less energy and resources to produce.

Manufacturing offers another crucial point for reducing waste and conserving resources. Innovations in production processes can lead to more efficient use of materials and energy, while also minimizing the generation of by-products and emissions. Adopting cleaner production techniques and improving manufacturing efficiency can significantly reduce the environmental footprint of a product.

Distribution involves the logistics of getting the product from the manufacturer to the consumer. Optimizing this stage can involve reducing packaging, choosing more sustainable transportation methods, and improving supply chain efficiencies to lower the overall environmental impact. Efficient logistics planning can also help in reducing fuel consumption and greenhouse gas emissions associated with the transport of goods.

The primary use phase of a product's lifecycle is where consumers interact with the product. Policies and practices that encourage responsible use, regular maintenance, and the proper functioning of products can extend their lifespan, thus reducing the need for frequent replacements and decreasing overall waste.

Once the product reaches the end of its primary use, it enters the waste hierarchy's stages. The first stage, reduction, involves efforts to decrease the volume and toxicity of waste generated. This can be achieved by encouraging consumers to buy less, use products more efficiently, and choose items with minimal packaging.

The reuse stage encourages finding alternative uses for products, whether through donation, resale, or repurposing. Reuse extends the life of products and delays their entry into the waste stream.

Recycling, the final preferred stage, involves processing materials to create new products, thus closing the loop in the material lifecycle. Effective recycling programs can significantly reduce the need for virgin materials and the environmental impacts associated with extracting and processing those materials.

Product life-cycle analysis (LCA) is a comprehensive method for evaluating the environmental impacts associated with all stages of a product's life. By systematically assessing these impacts, LCA helps identify opportunities to improve environmental performance and resource efficiency. Through optimizing product designs, manufacturing processes, and end-of-life management, LCA aims to maximize the use of the world's limited resources and minimize the unnecessary generation of waste.

In summary, the product lifecycle framework underscores the importance of a holistic approach to product design, use, and disposal. By considering each stage of the lifecycle and implementing policies and practices that promote sustainability, it is possible to significantly reduce the environmental impact of products and contribute to a more sustainable future.

Resource efficiency reflects the understanding that global economic growth and development can not be sustained at current production and consumption patterns. Globally, humanity extracts more resources to produce goods than the planet can replenish. Resource efficiency is the reduction of the environmental impact from the production and consumption of these goods, from final raw material extraction to the last use and disposal.

The polluter-pays principle mandates that the polluting parties pay for the impact on the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable materials.^[20]

Throughout most of history, the amount of waste generated by humans was insignificant due to low levels of population density and exploitation of natural resources. Common waste produced during pre-modern times was mainly ashes and human biodegradable waste, and these were released back into the ground locally, with minimum environmental impact. Tools made out of wood or metal were generally reused or passed down through the generations.

However, some civilizations have been more profligate in their waste output than others. In particular, the Maya of Central America had a fixed monthly ritual, in which the people of the village would gather together and burn their rubbish in large dumps.^{[21][irrelevant citation]}

Following the onset of the Industrial Revolution, industrialisation, and the sustained urban growth of large population centres in England, the buildup of waste in the cities caused a rapid deterioration in levels of sanitation and the general quality of urban life. The streets became choked with filth due to the lack of waste clearance regulations.^[22] Calls for the establishment of municipal authority with waste removal powers occurred as early as 1751, when Corbyn Morris in London proposed that "... as the preservation of the health of the people is of great importance, it is proposed that the cleaning of this city, should be put under one uniform public management, and all the filth be...conveyed by the Thames to proper distance in the country".^[23]

However, it was not until the mid-19th century, spurred by increasingly devastating cholera outbreaks and the emergence of a public health debate that the first legislation on the issue emerged. Highly influential in this new focus was the report The Sanitary Condition of the Labouring Population in 1842^[24] of the social reformer, Edwin Chadwick, in which he argued for the importance of adequate waste removal and management facilities to improve the health and wellbeing of the city's population.

In the UK, the Nuisance Removal and Disease Prevention Act of 1846 began what was to be a steadily evolving process of the provision of regulated waste management in London.^[25] The Metropolitan Board of Works was the first citywide authority that centralized sanitation regulation for the rapidly expanding city, and the Public Health Act 1875 made it compulsory for every household to deposit their weekly waste in "moveable receptacles" for disposal—the first concept for a dustbin.^[26] In the Ashanti Empire by the 19th century, there existed a Public Works Department that was responsible for sanitation in Kumasi and its suburbs. They kept the streets clean daily and commanded civilians to keep their compounds clean and weeded.^[27]

The dramatic increase in waste for disposal led to the creation of the first incineration plants, or, as they were then called, "destructors". In 1874, the first incinerator was built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Ltd. to the design of Alfred Fryer.^[23] However, these were met with opposition on account of the large amounts of ash they produced and which wafted over the neighbouring areas.^[28]

Similar municipal systems of waste disposal sprung up at the turn of the 20th century in other large cities of Europe and North America. In 1895, New York City became the first U.S. city with public-sector garbage management.^[26]

Early garbage removal trucks were simply open-bodied dump trucks pulled by a team of horses. They became motorized in the early part of the 20th century and the first closed-body trucks to eliminate odours with a dumping lever mechanism were introduced in the 1920s in Britain.^[29] These were soon equipped with 'hopper mechanisms' where the scooper was loaded at floor level and then hoisted mechanically to deposit the waste in the truck. The Garwood Load Packer was the first truck in 1938, to incorporate a hydraulic compactor.

Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies for industrial and commercial waste. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have formal waste-collection systems.

Curbside collection is the most common method of disposal in most European countries, Canada, New Zealand, the United States, and many other parts of the developed world in which waste is collected at regular intervals by specialised trucks. This is often associated with curb-side waste segregation. In rural areas, waste may need to be taken to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to an appropriate disposal facility. In some areas, vacuum collection is used in which waste is transported from the home or commercial premises by vacuum along small bore tubes. Systems are in use in Europe and North America.

In some jurisdictions, unsegregated waste is collected at the curb-side or from waste transfer stations and then sorted into recyclables and unusable waste. Such systems are capable of sorting large volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into bio-gas and soil conditioners. In San Francisco, the local government established its Mandatory Recycling and Composting Ordinance in support of its goal of "Zero waste by 2020", requiring everyone in the city to keep recyclables and compostables out of the landfill. The three streams are collected with the curbside "Fantastic 3" bin system – blue for recyclables, green for compostables, and black for landfill-bound materials – provided to residents and businesses and serviced by San Francisco's sole refuse hauler, Recology. The city's "Pay-As-You-Throw" system charges customers by the volume of landfill-bound materials, which provides a financial incentive to separate recyclables and compostables from other discards. The city's Department of the Environment's Zero Waste Program has led the city to achieve 80% diversion, the highest diversion rate in North America.^[30] Other businesses such as Waste Industries use a variety of colors to distinguish between trash and recycling cans. In addition, in some areas of the world the disposal of municipal solid waste can cause environmental strain due to official not having benchmarks that help measure the environmental sustainability of certain practices.^[31]

This is the separation of wet waste and dry waste. The purpose is to recycle dry waste easily and to use wet waste as compost. When segregating waste, the amount of waste that gets landfilled reduces considerably, resulting in lower levels of air and water pollution. Importantly, waste segregation should be based on the type of waste and the most appropriate treatment and disposal. This also makes it easier to apply different processes to the waste, like composting, recycling, and incineration. It is important to practice waste management and segregation as a community. One way to practice waste management is to ensure there is awareness. The process of waste segregation should be explained to the community.^[32]

Segregated waste is also often cheaper to dispose of because it does not require as much manual sorting as mixed waste. There are a number of important reasons why waste segregation is important such as legal obligations, cost savings, and protection of human health and the environment. Institutions should make it as easy as possible for their staff to correctly segregate their waste. This can include labelling, making sure there are enough accessible bins, and clearly indicating why segregation is so important.^[33] Labeling is especially important when dealing with nuclear waste due to how much harm to human health the excess products of the nuclear cycle can cause.^[34]

There are multiple facets of waste management that all come with hazards, both for those around the disposal site and those who work within waste management. Exposure to waste of any kind can be detrimental to the health of the individual, primary conditions that worsen with exposure to waste are asthma and tuberculosis.^[35] The exposure to waste on an average individual is highly dependent on the conditions around them, those in less developed or lower income areas are more susceptible to the effects of waste product, especially though chemical waste.^[36] The range of hazards due to waste is extremely large and covers every type of waste, not only chemical. There are many different guidelines to follow for disposing different types of waste.^[37]

The hazards of incineration are a large risk to many variable communities, including underdeveloped countries and countries or cities with little space for landfills or alternatives. Burning waste is an easily accessible option for many people around the globe, it has even been encouraged by the World Health Organization when there is no other option.^[38] Because burning waste is rarely paid attention to, its effects go unnoticed. The release of hazardous materials and CO2 when waste is burned is the largest hazard with incineration.^[39]

In most developed countries, domestic waste disposal is funded from a national or local tax which may be related to income, or property values. Commercial and industrial waste disposal is typically charged for as a commercial service, often as an integrated charge which includes disposal costs. This practice may encourage disposal contractors to opt for the cheapest disposal option such as landfill rather than the environmentally best solution such as re-use and recycling.

Financing solid waste management projects can be overwhelming for the city government, especially if the government see it as an important service they should render to the citizen. Donors and grants are a funding mechanism that is dependent on the interest of the donor organization. As much as it is a good way to develop a city's waste management infrastructure, attracting and utilizing grants is solely reliant on what the donor considers important. Therefore, it may be a challenge for a city government to dictate how the funds should be distributed among the various aspect of waste management.^[40]

An example of a country that enforces a waste tax is Italy. The tax is based on two rates: fixed and variable. The fixed rate is based on the size of the house while the variable is determined by the number of people living in the house.^[41]

The World Bank finances and advises on solid waste management projects using a diverse suite of products and services, including traditional loans, results-based financing, development policy financing, and technical advisory. World Bank-financed waste management projects usually address the entire lifecycle of waste right from the point of generation to collection and transportation, and finally treatment and disposal.^[6]

A landfill^[a] is a site for the disposal of waste materials. It is the oldest and most common form of waste disposal, although the systematic burial of waste with daily, intermediate and final covers only began in the 1940s. In the past, waste was simply left in piles or thrown into pits (known in archeology as middens).

Landfills take up a lot of land and pose environmental risks. Some landfill sites are used for waste management purposes, such as temporary storage, consolidation and transfer, or for various stages of processing waste material, such as sorting, treatment, or recycling. Unless they are stabilized, landfills may undergo severe shaking or soil liquefaction of the ground during an earthquake. Once full, the area over a landfill site may be reclaimed for other uses.

Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for the disposal of both municipal solid waste and solid residue from wastewater treatment. This process reduces the volume of solid waste by 80 to 95 percent.^[42] Incineration and other high-temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam, and ash.

Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid, and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as the emission of gaseous pollutants including substantial quantities of carbon dioxide.

Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more scarce, as the facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam, or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organic compounds such as dioxins, furans, and PAHs, which may be created and which may have serious environmental consequences and some heavy metals such as mercury^[43] and lead which can be volatilised in the combustion process..

Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste materials such as empty beverage containers. This process involves breaking down and reusing materials that would otherwise be gotten rid of as trash. There are numerous benefits of recycling, and with so many new technologies making even more materials recyclable, it is possible to clean up the Earth.^[44] Recycling not only benefits the environment but also positively affects the economy. The materials from which the items are made can be made into new products.^[45] Materials for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles, a procedure called kerbside collection. In some communities, the owner of the waste is required to separate the materials into different bins (e.g. for paper, plastics, metals) prior to its collection. In other communities, all recyclable materials are placed in a single bin for collection, and the sorting is handled later at a central facility. The latter method is known as "single-stream recycling".^[46][47]

The most common consumer products recycled include aluminium such as beverage cans, copper such as wire, steel from food and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or equipment, rubber tyres, polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines and light paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes.

PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required.

The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city and country has different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials. However, certain variation in acceptance is reflected in the resale value of the material once it is reprocessed. Some of the types of recycling include waste paper and cardboard, plastic recycling, metal recycling, electronic devices, wood recycling, glass recycling, cloth and textile and so many more.^[48] In July 2017, the Chinese government announced an import ban of 24 categories of recyclables and solid waste, including plastic, textiles and mixed paper, placing tremendous impact on developed countries globally, which exported directly or indirectly to China.^[49]

Recoverable materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be recovered through composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximising efficiencies. There are different types of composting and digestion methods and technologies. They vary in complexity from simple home compost heaps to large-scale industrial digestion of mixed domestic waste. The different methods of biological decomposition are classified as aerobic or anaerobic methods. Some methods use the hybrids of these two methods. The anaerobic digestion of the organic fraction of solid waste is more environmentally effective than landfill, or incineration.^[50] The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. (See resource recovery).

Energy recovery from waste is the conversion of non-recyclable waste materials into usable heat, electricity, or fuel through a variety of processes, including combustion, gasification, pyrolyzation, anaerobic digestion, and landfill gas recovery.^[51] This process is often called waste-to-energy. Energy recovery from waste is part of the non-hazardous waste management hierarchy. Using energy recovery to convert non-recyclable waste materials into electricity and heat, generates a renewable energy source and can reduce carbon emissions by offsetting the need for energy from fossil sources as well as reduce methane generation from landfills.^[51] Globally, waste-to-energy accounts for 16% of waste management.^[52]

The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel. Thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating and the use of the gas fuel (see above), to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine. Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid, and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other chemical products (chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon. Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. An alternative to pyrolysis is high-temperature and pressure supercritical water decomposition (hydrothermal monophasic oxidation).

Pyrolysis is often used to convert many types of domestic and industrial residues into a recovered fuel. Different types of waste input (such as plant waste, food waste, tyres) placed in the pyrolysis process potentially yield an alternative to fossil fuels.^[53] Pyrolysis is a process of thermo-chemical decomposition of organic materials by heat in the absence of stoichiometric quantities of oxygen; the decomposition produces various hydrocarbon gases.^[54] During pyrolysis, the molecules of an object vibrate at high frequencies to the extent that molecules start breaking down. The rate of pyrolysis increases with temperature. In industrial applications, temperatures are above 430 °C (800 °F).^[55]

Slow pyrolysis produces gases and solid charcoal.^[56] Pyrolysis holds promise for conversion of waste biomass into useful liquid fuel. Pyrolysis of waste wood and plastics can potentially produce fuel. The solids left from pyrolysis contain metals, glass, sand, and pyrolysis coke which does not convert to gas. Compared to the process of incineration, certain types of pyrolysis processes release less harmful by-products that contain alkali metals, sulphur, and chlorine. However, pyrolysis of some waste yields gases which impact the environment such as HCl and SO₂.^[57]

Resource recovery is the systematic diversion of waste, which was intended for disposal, for a specific next use.^[58] It is the processing of recyclables to extract or recover materials and resources, or convert to energy.^[59] These activities are performed at a resource recovery facility.^[59] Resource recovery is not only environmentally important, but it is also cost-effective.^[60] It decreases the amount of waste for disposal, saves space in landfills, and conserves natural resources.^[60]

Resource recovery, an alternative approach to traditional waste management, utilizes life cycle analysis (LCA) to evaluate and optimize waste handling strategies. Comprehensive studies focusing on mixed municipal solid waste (MSW) have identified a preferred pathway for maximizing resource efficiency and minimizing environmental impact, including effective waste administration and management, source separation of waste materials, efficient collection systems, reuse and recycling of non-organic fractions, and processing of organic material through anaerobic digestion.

As an example of how resource recycling can be beneficial, many items thrown away contain metals that can be recycled to create a profit, such as the components in circuit boards. Wood chippings in pallets and other packaging materials can be recycled into useful products for horticulture. The recycled chips can cover paths, walkways, or arena surfaces.

Application of rational and consistent waste management practices can yield a range of benefits including:

1. Economic – Improving economic efficiency through the means of resource use, treatment, and disposal and creating markets for recycles can lead to efficient practices in the production and consumption of products and materials resulting in valuable materials being recovered for reuse and the potential for new jobs and new business opportunities.
2. Social – By reducing adverse impacts on health through proper waste management practices, the resulting consequences are more appealing to civic communities. Better social advantages can lead to new sources of employment and potentially lift communities out of poverty, especially in some of the developing poorer countries and cities.
3. Environmental – Reducing or eliminating adverse impacts on the environment through reducing, reusing, recycling, and minimizing resource extraction can result in improved air and water quality and help in the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
4. Inter-generational Equity – Following effective waste management practices can provide subsequent generations a more robust economy, a fairer and more inclusive society and a cleaner environment.^{[18][page needed]}

Liquid waste is an important category of waste management because it is so difficult to deal with. Unlike solid wastes, liquid wastes cannot be easily picked up and removed from an environment. Liquid wastes spread out, and easily pollute other sources of liquid if brought into contact. This type of waste also soaks into objects like soil and groundwater. This in turn carries over to pollute the plants, the animals in the ecosystem, as well as the humans within the area of the pollution.^[67]

Industrial wastewater treatment describes the processes used for treating wastewater that is produced by industries as an undesirable by-product. After treatment, the treated industrial wastewater (or effluent) may be reused or released to a sanitary sewer or to a surface water in the environment. Some industrial facilities generate wastewater that can be treated in sewage treatment plants. Most industrial processes, such as petroleum refineries, chemical and petrochemical plants have their own specialized facilities to treat their wastewaters so that the pollutant concentrations in the treated wastewater comply with the regulations regarding disposal of wastewaters into sewers or into rivers, lakes or oceans.^{[68]: 1412â€Å}  This applies to industries that generate wastewater with high concentrations of organic matter (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or nutrients such as ammonia.^{[69]: 180â€Å}  Some industries install a pre-treatment system to remove some pollutants (e.g., toxic compounds), and then discharge the partially treated wastewater to the municipal sewer system.^{[70]: 60â€Å} 

Most industries produce some wastewater. Recent trends have been to minimize such production or to recycle treated wastewater within the production process. Some industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants.^[71] Sources of industrial wastewater include battery manufacturing, chemical manufacturing, electric power plants, food industry, iron and steel industry, metal working, mines and quarries, nuclear industry, oil and gas extraction, petroleum refining and petrochemicals, pharmaceutical manufacturing, pulp and paper industry, smelters, textile mills, industrial oil contamination, water treatment and wood preserving. Treatment processes include brine treatment, solids removal (e.g. chemical precipitation, filtration), oils and grease removal, removal of biodegradable organics, removal of other organics, removal of acids and alkalis, and removal of toxic materials.

Sewage sludge treatment describes the processes used to manage and dispose of sewage sludge produced during sewage treatment. Sludge treatment is focused on reducing sludge weight and volume to reduce transportation and disposal costs, and on reducing potential health risks of disposal options. Water removal is the primary means of weight and volume reduction, while pathogen destruction is frequently accomplished through heating during thermophilic digestion, composting, or incineration. The choice of a sludge treatment method depends on the volume of sludge generated, and comparison of treatment costs required for available disposal options. Air-drying and composting may be attractive to rural communities, while limited land availability may make aerobic digestion and mechanical dewatering preferable for cities, and economies of scale may encourage energy recovery alternatives in metropolitan areas.

Sludge is mostly water with some amounts of solid material removed from liquid sewage. Primary sludge includes settleable solids removed during primary treatment in primary clarifiers. Secondary sludge is sludge separated in secondary clarifiers that are used in secondary treatment bioreactors or processes using inorganic oxidizing agents. In intensive sewage treatment processes, the sludge produced needs to be removed from the liquid line on a continuous basis because the volumes of the tanks in the liquid line have insufficient volume to store sludge.^[72] This is done in order to keep the treatment processes compact and in balance (production of sludge approximately equal to the removal of sludge). The sludge removed from the liquid line goes to the sludge treatment line. Aerobic processes (such as the activated sludge process) tend to produce more sludge compared with anaerobic processes. On the other hand, in extensive (natural) treatment processes, such as ponds and constructed wetlands, the produced sludge remains accumulated in the treatment units (liquid line) and is only removed after several years of operation.^[73]

Sludge treatment options depend on the amount of solids generated and other site-specific conditions. Composting is most often applied to small-scale plants with aerobic digestion for mid-sized operations, and anaerobic digestion for the larger-scale operations. The sludge is sometimes passed through a so-called pre-thickener which de-waters the sludge. Types of pre-thickeners include centrifugal sludge thickeners,^[74] rotary drum sludge thickeners and belt filter presses.^[75] Dewatered sludge may be incinerated or transported offsite for disposal in a landfill or use as an agricultural soil amendment.^[76]

Energy may be recovered from sludge through methane gas production during anaerobic digestion or through incineration of dried sludge, but energy yield is often insufficient to evaporate sludge water content or to power blowers, pumps, or centrifuges required for dewatering. Coarse primary solids and secondary sewage sludge may include toxic chemicals removed from liquid sewage by sorption onto solid particles in clarifier sludge. Reducing sludge volume may increase the concentration of some of these toxic chemicals in the sludge.^[77]

An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as waste reduction. Waste Minimization is reducing the quantity of hazardous wastes achieved through a thorough application of innovative or alternative procedures.^[78] Methods of avoidance include reuse of second-hand products, repairing broken items instead of buying new ones, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any food/liquid remains from cans and packaging,^[79] and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example, lightweighting of beverage cans).^[80]

Areas with developing economies often experience exhausted waste collection services and inadequately managed and uncontrolled dumpsites. The problems are worsening.^{[18][page needed][90]} Problems with governance complicate the situation. Waste management in these countries and cities is an ongoing challenge due to weak institutions, chronic under-resourcing, and rapid urbanization.^{[18][page needed]} All of these challenges, along with the lack of understanding of different factors that contribute to the hierarchy of waste management, affect the treatment of waste.^{[91][full citation needed]}

In developing countries, waste management activities are usually carried out by the poor, for their survival. It has been estimated that 2% of the population in Asia, Latin America, and Africa are dependent on waste for their livelihood. Family organized, or individual manual scavengers are often involved with waste management practices with very little supportive network and facilities with increased risk of health effects. Additionally, this practice prevents their children from further education. The participation level of most citizens in waste management is very low, residents in urban areas are not actively involved in the process of waste management.^[92]

Traditionally, the waste management industry has been a late adopter of new technologies such as RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) tags, GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality data to be collected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.^[93] This technology has been used widely by many organizations in some industrialized countries. Radiofrequency identification is a tagging system for automatic identification of recyclable components of municipal solid waste streams.^[94]

Smart waste management has been implemented in several cities, including San Francisco, Varde or Madrid.^[95] Waste containers are equipped with level sensors. When the container is almost full, the sensor warns the pickup truck, which can thus trace its route servicing the fullest containers and skipping the emptiest ones.^[96]

The "Global Waste Management Outlook 2024," supported by the Environment Fund - UNEP’s core financial fund, and jointly published with the International Solid Waste Association (ISWA), provides a comprehensive update on the trajectory of global waste generation and the escalating costs of waste management since 2018. The report predicts municipal solid waste to rise from 2.3 billion tonnes in 2023 to 3.8 billion tonnes by 2050. The direct global cost of waste management was around USD 252 billion in 2020, which could soar to USD 640.3 billion annually by 2050 if current practices continue without reform. Incorporating life cycle assessments, the report contrasts scenarios from maintaining the status quo to fully adopting zero waste and circular economy principles. It indicates that effective waste prevention and management could cap annual costs at USD 270.2 billion by 2050, while a circular economy approach could transform the sector into a net positive, offering a potential annual gain of USD 108.5 billion. To prevent the direst outcomes, the report calls for immediate action across multiple sectors, including development banks, governments, municipalities, producers, retailers, and citizens, providing targeted strategies for waste reduction and improved management practices.^[97]

Waste generated by country, 2020^[98]

Country	GDP (USD)	Population	Total waste generated (t)	Share of population living in urban areas	Waste generated per capita (kg/person)
Aruba	35,563	103,187	88,132	44%	854
Afghanistan	2,057	34,656,032	5,628,525	26%	162
Angola	8,037	25,096,150	4,213,644	67%	168
Albania	13,724	2,854,191	1,087,447	62%	381
Andorra	43,712	82,431	43,000	88%	522
United Arab Emirates	67,119	9,770,529	5,617,682	87%	575
Argentina	23,550	42,981,516	17,910,550	92%	417
Armenia	11,020	2,906,220	492,800	63%	170
American Samoa	11,113	55,599	18,989	87%	342
Antigua and Barbuda	17,966	96,777	30,585	24%	316
Australia	47,784	23,789,338	13,345,000	86%	561
Austria	56,030	8,877,067	5,219,716	59%	588
Azerbaijan	14,854	9,649,341	2,930,349	56%	304
Burundi	840	6,741,569	1,872,016	14%	278
Belgium	51,915	11,484,055	4,765,883	98%	415
Benin	2,227	5,521,763	685,936	48%	124
Burkina Faso	1,925	18,110,624	2,575,251	31%	142
Bangladesh	3,196	155,727,056	14,778,497	38%	95
Bulgaria	22,279	7,025,037	2,859,190	76%	407
Bahrain	47,938	1,425,171	951,943	90%	668
Bahamas	35,400	386,838	264,000	83%	682
Bosnia and Herzegovina	12,671	3,535,961	1,248,718	49%	353
Belarus	18,308	9,489,616	4,280,000	79%	451
Belize	7,259	359,288	101,379	46%	282
Bermuda	80,982	64,798	82,000	100%	1,265
Bolivia	7,984	10,724,705	2,219,052	70%	207
Brazil	14,596	208,494,896	79,069,584	87%	379
Barbados	15,445	280,601	174,815	31%	623
Brunei	60,866	423,196	216,253	78%	511
Bhutan	6,743	686,958	111,314	42%	162
Botswana	14,126	2,014,866	210,854	71%	105
Central African Republic	823	4,515,392	1,105,983	42%	245
Canada	47,672	35,544,564	25,103,034	82%	706
Switzerland	68,394	8,574,832	6,079,556	74%	709
Channel Islands	46,673	164,541	178,933	31%	1,087
Chile	20,362	16,829,442	6,517,000	88%	387
China	16,092	1,400,050,048	395,081,376	61%	282
Côte d'Ivoire	3,661	20,401,332	4,440,814	52%	218
Cameroon	3,263	21,655,716	3,270,617	58%	151
Democratic Republic of the Congo	1,056	78,736,152	14,385,226	46%	183
Republic of the Congo	4,900	2,648,507	451,200	68%	170
Colombia	12,523	46,406,648	12,150,120	81%	262
Comoros	2,960	777,424	91,013	29%	117
Cape Verde	6,354	513,979	132,555	67%	258
Costa Rica	18,169	4,757,575	1,460,000	81%	307
Cuba	12,985	11,303,687	2,692,692	77%	238
Curaçao	27,504	153,822	24,704	89	161
Cayman Islands	66,207	59,172	60,000	100%	1,014
Cyprus	39,545	1,198,575	769,485	67%	642
Germany	53,785	83,132,800	50,627,876	77%	609
Djibouti	6,597	746,221	114,997	78%	154
Dominica	11,709	72,400	13,176	71%	182
Denmark	57,821	5,818,553	4,910,859	88%	844
Dominican Republic	15,328	10,528,394	4,063,910	83%	386
Algeria	11,826	40,606,052	12,378,740	74%	305
Ecuador	11,896	16,144,368	5,297,211	64%	328
Egypt	10,301	87,813,256	21,000,000	43%	239
Eritrea	1,715	4,474,690	726,957	41%	162
Spain	40,986	47,076,780	22,408,548	81%	476
Estonia	36,956	1,326,590	489,512	69%	369
Ethiopia	1,779	99,873,032	6,532,787	22%	65
Finland	48,814	5,520,314	3,124,498	86%	566
Fiji	10,788	867,086	189,390	57%	218
France	46,110	67,059,888	36,748,820	81%	548
Faroe Islands	44,403	48,842	61,000	42%	1,249
Federated States of Micronesia	3,440	104,937	26,040	23%	248
Gabon	18,515	1,086,137	238,102	90%	219
United Kingdom	46,290	66,460,344	30,771,140	84%	463
Georgia	12,605	3,717,100	800,000	59%	215
Ghana	3,093	21,542,008	3,538,275	57%	164
Gibraltar	43,712	33,623	16,954	100%	504
Guinea	1,623	8,132,552	596,911	37%	73
Gambia	2,181	1,311,349	193,441	63%	148
Guinea-Bissau	1,800	1,770,526	289,514	44%	164
Equatorial Guinea	24,827	1,221,490	198,443	73%	162
Greece	30,465	10,716,322	5,615,353	80%	524
Grenada	13,208	105,481	29,536	37%	280
Greenland	43,949	56,905	50,000	87%	879
Guatemala	8,125	16,252,429	2,756,741	52%	170
Guam	59,075	159,973	141,500	95%	885
Guyana	9,812	746,556	179,252	27%	240
Hong Kong	57,216	7,305,700	5,679,816	100%	777
Honduras	5,396	9,112,867	2,162,028	58%	237
Croatia	28,829	4,067,500	1,810,038	58%	445
Haiti	2,953	10,847,334	2,309,852	57%	213
Hungary	32,643	9,769,949	3,780,970	72%	387
Indonesia	10,531	261,115,456	65,200,000	57%	250
Isle of Man	44,204	80,759	50,551	53%	626
India	6,497	1,352,617,344	189,750,000	35%	140
Ireland	83,389	4,867,316	2,910,655	64%	598
Iran	14,536	80,277,424	17,885,000	76%	223
Iraq	10,311	36,115,648	13,140,000	71%	364
Iceland	55,274	343,400	225,270	94%	656
Israel	37,688	8,380,100	5,400,000	93%	644
Italy	42,420	60,297,396	30,088,400	71%	499
Jamaica	9,551	2,881,355	1,051,695	56%	365
Jordan	10,413	8,413,464	2,529,997	91%	301
Japan	41,310	126,529,104	42,720,000	92%	338
Kazakhstan	22,703	16,791,424	4,659,740	58%	278
Kenya	3,330	41,350,152	5,595,099	28%	135
Kyrgyzstan	4,805	5,956,900	1,113,300	37%	187
Cambodia	3,364	15,270,790	1,089,000	24%	71
Kiribati	2,250	114,395	35,724	56%	312
Saint Kitts and Nevis	25,569	54,288	32,892	31%	606
South Korea	42,105	51,606,632	20,452,776	81%	396
Kuwait	58,810	2,998,083	1,750,000	100%	584
Laos	6,544	6,663,967	351,900	36%	53
Lebanon	16,967	5,603,279	2,040,000	89%	364
Liberia	1,333	3,512,932	564,467	52%	161
Libya	8,480	6,193,501	2,147,596	81%	347
Saint Lucia	14,030	177,206	77,616	19%	438
Liechtenstein	45,727	36,545	32,382	14%	886
Sri Lanka	12,287	21,203,000	2,631,650	19%	124
Lesotho	1,979	1,965,662	73,457	29%	37
Lithuania	37,278	2,786,844	1,315,390	68%	472
Luxembourg	114,323	619,896	490,338	91%	791
Latvia	30,982	1,912,789	839,714	68%	439
Macau	117,336	612,167	377,942	100%	617
Morocco	6,915	34,318,080	6,852,000	64%	200
Monaco	43,712	37,783	46,000	100%	1,217
Moldova	10,361	3,554,108	3,981,200	43%	1,120
Madagascar	1,566	24,894,552	3,768,759	39%	151
Maldives	17,285	409,163	211,506	41%	517
Mexico	19,332	125,890,952	53,100,000	81%	422
Marshall Islands	3,629	52,793	8,614	78%	163
North Macedonia	16,148	2,082,958	626,970	58%	301
Mali	2,008	16,006,670	1,937,354	44%	121
Malta	43,708	502,653	348,841	95%	694
Myanmar	1,094	46,095,464	4,677,307	31%	101
Montenegro	20,753	622,227	329,780	67%	530
Mongolia	10,940	3,027,398	2,900,000	69%	958
Northern Mariana Islands	60,956	54,036	32,761	92%	606
Mozambique	1,217	27,212,382	2,500,000	37%	92
Mauritania	4,784	3,506,288	454,000	55%	129
Mauritius	20,647	1,263,473	438,000	41%	347
Malawi	999	16,577,147	1,297,844	17%	78
Malaysia	23,906	30,228,016	12,982,685	77%	429
Namibia	6,153	1,559,983	256,729	52%	165
New Caledonia	57,330	278,000	108,157	72%	389
Niger	1,038	8,842,415	1,865,646	17%	211
Nigeria	4,690	154,402,176	27,614,830	52%	179
Nicaragua	4,612	5,737,723	1,528,816	59%	266
Netherlands	56,849	17,332,850	8,805,088	92%	508
Norway	64,962	5,347,896	4,149,967	83%	776
Nepal	2,902	28,982,772	1,768,977	21%	61
Nauru	11,167	13,049	6,192	100%	475
New Zealand	41,857	4,692,700	3,405,000	87%	726
Oman	30,536	3,960,925	1,734,885	86%	438
Pakistan	4,571	193,203,472	30,760,000	37%	159
Panama	28,436	3,969,249	1,472,262	68%	371
Peru	11,877	30,973,354	8,356,711	78%	270
Philippines	7,705	103,320,224	14,631,923	47%	142
Palau	18,275	21,503	9,427	81%	438
Papua New Guinea	3,912	7,755,785	1,000,000	13%	129
Poland	33,222	37,970,872	12,758,213	60%	336
Puerto Rico	34,311	3,473,181	4,170,953	94%	1,201
Portugal	34,962	10,269,417	5,268,211	66%	513
Paraguay	11,810	6,639,119	1,818,501	62%	274
Palestine	5,986	4,046,901	1,387,000	77%	343
French Polynesia	60,956	273,528	147,000	62%	537
Qatar	96,262	2,109,568	1,000,990	99%	475
Romania	29,984	19,356,544	5,419,833	54%	280
Russia	26,013	143,201,680	60,000,000	75%	419
Rwanda	1,951	11,917,508	4,384,969	17%	368
Saudi Arabia	48,921	31,557,144	16,125,701	84%	511
Sudan	4,192	38,647,804	2,831,291	35%	73
Senegal	3,068	15,411,614	2,454,059	48%	159
Singapore	97,341	5,703,600	1,870,000	100%	328
Solomon Islands	2,596	563,513	179,972	25%	319
Sierra Leone	1,238	5,439,695	610,222	43%	112
El Salvador	7,329	6,164,626	1,648,996	73%	267
San Marino	58,806	33,203	17,175	97%	517
Somalia	1,863	14,317,996	2,326,099	46%	162
Serbia	18,351	6,944,975	2,347,402	56%	338
South Sudan	1,796	11,177,490	2,680,681	20%	240
São Tomé and Príncipe	3,721	191,266	25,587	74%	134
Suriname	16,954	526,103	78,620	66%	149
Slovakia	31,966	5,454,073	2,296,165	54%	421
Slovenia	39,038	2,087,946	1,052,325	55%	504
Sweden	52,609	10,285,453	4,618,169	88%	449
Eswatini	8,321	1,343,098	218,199	24%	162
Seychelles	23,303	88,303	48,000	58%	544
Syria	8,587	20,824,892	4,500,000	55%	216
Chad	1,733	11,887,202	1,358,851	24%	114
Togo	1,404	7,228,915	1,109,030	43%	153
Thailand	16,302	68,657,600	26,853,366	51%	391
Tajikistan	2,616	8,177,809	1,787,400	28%	219
Turkmenistan	11,471	5,366,277	500,000	53%	93
Timor-Leste	3,345	1,268,671	63,875	31%	50
Tonga	5,636	104,951	17,238	23%	164
Trinidad and Tobago	28,911	1,328,100	727,874	53%	548
Tunisia	10,505	11,143,908	2,700,000	70%	242
Turkey	28,289	83,429,616	35,374,156	76%	424
Tuvalu	3,793	11,097	3,989	64%	360
Tanzania	2,129	49,082,996	9,276,995	35%	189
Uganda	1,972	35,093,648	7,045,050	25%	201
Ukraine	11,535	45,004,644	15,242,025	70%	339
Uruguay	20,588	3,431,552	1,260,140	96%	367
United States of America	61,498	326,687,488	265,224,528	83%	812
Uzbekistan	5,164	29,774,500	4,000,000	50%	134
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines	11,972	109,455	31,561	53%	288
Venezuela	14,270	29,893,080	9,779,093	88%	327
British Virgin Islands	24,216	20,645	21,099	49%	1,022
United States Virgin Islands	30,437	105,784	146,500	96%	1,385
Vietnam	5,089	86,932,496	9,570,300	37%	110
Vanuatu	3,062	270,402	70,225	26%	260
Samoa	6,211	187,665	27,399	18%	146
Yemen	8,270	27,584,212	4,836,820	38%	175
South Africa	12,667	51,729,344	18,457,232	67%	357
Zambia	3,201	14,264,756	2,608,268	45%	183
Zimbabwe	3,191	12,500,525	1,449,752	32%	116

Municipal solid waste generation shows spatiotemporal variation. In spatial distribution, the point sources in eastern coastal regions are quite different. Guangdong, Shanghai and Tianjin produced MSW of 30.35, 7.85 and 2.95 Mt, respectively. In temporal distribution, during 2009–2018, Fujian province showed a 123% increase in MSW generation while Liaoning province showed only 7% increase, whereas Shanghai special zone had a decline of −11% after 2013. MSW composition characteristics are complicated. The major components such as kitchen waste, paper and rubber & plastics in different eastern coastal cities have fluctuation in the range of 52.8–65.3%, 3.5–11.9%, and 9.9–19.1%, respectively. Treatment rate of consumption waste is up to 99% with a sum of 52% landfill, 45% incineration, and 3% composting technologies, indicating that landfill still dominates MSW treatment.^[99]

Morocco has seen benefits from implementing a $300 million sanitary landfill system. While it might appear to be a costly investment, the country's government predicts that it has saved them another $440 million in damages, or consequences of failing to dispose of waste properly.^[100]

San Francisco started to make changes to their waste management policies in 2009 with the expectation to be zero waste by 2030.^[101] Council made changes such as making recycling and composting a mandatory practice for businesses and individuals, banning Styrofoam and plastic bags, putting charges on paper bags, and increasing garbage collection rates.^[101][102] Businesses are fiscally rewarded for correct disposal of recycling and composting and taxed for incorrect disposal. Besides these policies, the waste bins were manufactured in various sizes. The compost bin is the largest, the recycling bin is second, and the garbage bin is the smallest. This encourages individuals to sort their waste thoughtfully with respect to the sizes. These systems are working because they were able to divert 80% of waste from the landfill, which is the highest rate of any major U.S. city.^[101] Despite all these changes, Debbie Raphael, director of the San Francisco Department of the Environment, states that zero waste is still not achievable until all products are designed differently to be able to be recycled or compostable.^[101]

This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (January 2022)

Turkey generates about 30 million tons of solid municipal waste per year; the annual amount of waste generated per capita amounts to about 400 kilograms.^[103] According to Waste Atlas, Turkey's waste collection coverage rate is 77%, whereas its unsound waste disposal rate is 69%.^[103] While the country has a strong legal framework in terms of laying down common provisions for waste management, the implementation process has been considered slow since the beginning of 1990s.

Waste management policy in England is the responsibility of the Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA). In England, the "Waste Management Plan for England" presents a compilation of waste management policies.^[104] In the devolved nations such as Scotland Waste management policy is a responsibility of their own respective departments.

In Zambia, ASAZA is a community-based organization whose principal purpose is to complement the efforts of the Government and cooperating partners to uplift the standard of living for disadvantaged communities. The project's main objective is to minimize the problem of indiscriminate littering which leads to land degradation and pollution of the environment. ASAZA is also at the same time helping alleviate the problems of unemployment and poverty through income generation and payment of participants, women, and unskilled youths.^[105]

A record 53.6 million metric tonnes (Mt) of electronic waste was generated worldwide in 2019, up 21 percent in just five years, according to the UN's Global E-waste Monitor 2020, released today. The new report also predicts global e-waste – discarded products with a battery or plug – will reach 74 Mt by 2030, almost a doubling of e-waste in just 16 years. This makes e-waste the world's fastest-growing domestic waste stream, fueled mainly by higher consumption rates of electric and electronic equipment, short life cycles, and few options for repair. Only 17.4 percent of 2019's e-waste was collected and recycled. This means that gold, silver, copper, platinum, and other high-value, recoverable materials conservatively valued at US$57 billion – a sum greater than the Gross Domestic Product of most countries – were mostly dumped or burned rather than being collected for treatment and reuse.^[106] E-wasteis predicted to double by 2050.^[107][108]

The Transboundary E-waste Flows Monitor quantified that 5.1 Mt (just below 10 percent of the total amount of global e-waste, 53.6 Mt) crossed country borders in 2019. To better understand the implication of transboundary movement, this study categorizes the transboundary movement of e-waste into controlled and uncontrolled movements and also considers both the receiving and sending regions.^[109]

Related scientific journals in this area include:

• Environmental and Resource Economics
• Environmental Monitoring and Assessment
• Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management
• Journal of Environmental Economics and Management

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Construction waste or debris is any kind of debris from the construction process. Different government agencies have clear definitions. For example, the United States Environmental Protection Agency EPA defines construction and demolition materials as “debris generated during the construction, renovation and demolition of buildings, roads, and bridges.” Additionally, the EPA has categorized Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste into three categories:  non-dangerous, hazardous, and semi-hazardous.^[1]

Of total construction and demolition (C&D) waste in the United States, 90% comes from the demolition of structures, while waste generated during construction accounts for less than 10%.^[2] Construction waste frequently includes materials that are hazardous if disposed of in landfills. Such items include fluorescent lights, batteries, and other electrical equipment.^[3]

When waste is created, options of disposal include exportation to a landfill, incineration, direct site reuse through integration into construction or as fill dirt, and recycling for a new use if applicable. In dealing with construction and demolition waste products, it is often hard to recycle and repurpose because of the cost of processing. Businesses recycling materials must compete with often the low cost of landfills and new construction commodities.^[4] Data provided by 24 states reported that solid waste from construction and demolition (C&D) accounts for 23% of total waste in the U.S.^[5] This is almost a quarter of the total solid waste produced by the United States. During construction a lot of this waste spends in a landfill leaching toxic chemicals into the surrounding environment. Results of a recent questionnaire demonstrate that although 95.71% of construction projects indicate that construction waste is problematic, only 57.14% of those companies collect any relevant data.^[6]

C&D Materials, construction and demolition materials, are materials used in and harvested from new building and civil engineer structures.^[3] Much building waste is made up of materials such as bricks, concrete and wood damaged or unused during construction. Observational research has shown that this can be as high as 10 to 15% of the materials that go into a building, a much higher percentage than the 2.5-5% usually assumed by quantity surveyors and the construction industry. Since considerable variability exists between construction sites, there is much opportunity for reducing this waste.^[7]

There has been a massive increase in construction and demolition waste created over the last 30 years in the United States. In 1990, 135 million tons of construction and demolition debris by weight were created and had risen to 600 million tons by the year 2018. This is a 300% increase, but it is important to note that since 2015 the EPA has kept records of how the waste is disposed of. In 2018, 600 million tons of waste was created due to construction and demolition, and 143 million tons of it resides in landfills.^[2] This means that about 76% of waste is now retained and repurposed in the industry, but there is still more waste being exported to landfills than the entire amount of waste created in 1990.

This unsustainable consumption of raw materials creates increasing business risks. This includes higher material costs or disruptions in the supply chains.^[8] In 2010, the EPA created the Sustainable Materials Management (SMM) Program Strategic Plan which marked a strategic shift by the EPA to move emphasis from broad resource recovery initiative to sustainable materials management. Since material management regulations largely exist at a state and local level, this is no real standard practice across the nation for responsible waste mitigation strategies for construction materials. The EPA aims to increase access to collection, processing, and recycling infrastructure in order to meet this issue head on.

Construction waste can be categorized as follows: Design, Handling, Worker, Management, Site condition, Procurement and External.  These categories were derived from data collected from past research concerning the frequency of different types of waste noted during each type of these activities.^[9] Examples of this type of waste are as follows:

Steel is used as reinforcement and structural integrity in the vast majority of construction projects. The main reasons steel is wasted on a site is due to irresponsible beam cutting and fabrication issues. The worst sites usually end up being the ones that do not have adequate design details and standards, which can result in waste due to short ends of bars being discarded due to improper planning of cuts.^[10] Many companies now choose to purchase preassembled steel reinforcement pieces. This reduces waste by outsourcing the bar cutting to companies that prioritize responsible material use.

Premixed concrete has one of the lowest waste indices when compared to other building materials. Many site managers site the difficulties controlling concrete delivery amounts as a major issue in accurately quantifying concrete needed for a site. The deviations from actually constructed concrete slabs and beams and the design amounts necessary were found to be 5.4% and 2.7% larger than expected, respectively, when comparing the data from 30 Brazilian sites. Many of these issues were attributed to inadequate form layout or lack of precision in excavation for foundation piles. Additionally, site managers know that additional concrete may be needed, and they will often order excess material to not interrupt the concrete pouring.^[10]

It is often difficult to plan and keep track of all the pipes and wires on a site as they are used in so many different areas of a project, especially when electrical and plumbing services are routinely subcontracted. Many issues of waste arise in this area of the construction process because of poorly designed details and irresponsible cutting of pipes and wires leaving short, wasted pipes and wires.^[10]

The second leading cause of construction waste production is improper material storage. Exposure to the elements and miss handling by persons are due to human error.^[10] Part of this human error can lead to illegal dumping and illegal transportation volume of waste from a jobsite.^[11]

Most guidelines on C&D waste management follows the waste managing hierarchy framework. This framework involves a set of alternatives for dealing with waste arranged in descending order of preference. The waste hierarchy is a nationally and internationally accepted concept used to priorities and guide efforts to manage waste. Under the idea of Waste Hierarchy, there is the concept of the "3R's," often known as "reduce, reuse, recycle." Certain countries adopt different numbers of "R's." The European Union, for example, puts principal to the "4R" system which includes "Recovery" in order to reduce waste of materials.^[12] Alternatives include prevention, energy recovery, (treatment) and disposal.

It is possible to recycle many elements of construction waste. Often roll-off containers are used to transport the waste. Rubble can be crushed and reused in construction projects. Waste wood can also be recovered and recycled.

Some certain components of construction waste such as plasterboard are hazardous once landfilled. Plasterboard is broken down in landfill conditions releasing hydrogen sulfide, a toxic gas. Once broken down, Plasterboard poses a threat for increases Arsenic concentration Levels in its toxic inorganic form.^[13] The traditional disposal way for construction waste is to send it to landfill sites. In the U.S., federal regulations now require groundwater monitoring, waste screening, and operator training, due to the environmental impact of waste in C&D landfills (CFR 1996).^[14] Sending the waste directly to a landfill causes many problems:

• Waste of natural resources
• Increases construction cost, especially the transportation process^[15]
• Occupies a large area of land
• Reduces soil quality
• Causes water pollution (Leachate)
• Causes air pollution
• Produces security risks etc.^[16]

Where recycling is not an option, the disposal of construction waste and hazardous materials must be carried out according to legislation of relevant councils and regulatory bodies. The penalties for improper disposal of construction waste and hazardous waste, including asbestos, can reach into the tens of thousands of dollars for businesses and individuals.

Waste-to-energy facilities burn more than 13% of solid municipal waste. The toxic fumes emitted by WTE plants can contain harmful chemicals such as mercury and other heavy metals, carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, and dioxins.

Dioxin was used as a waste oil in Times Beach, Missouri. Days after the chemicals were introduced to the community animals began dying. By the time the EPA deemed dioxins to be highly toxic in the 1980s, the CDC recommended the town be abandoned entirely due to contaminated waste products in the area. By 1985, the entire population of Times Beach had been relocated, prompting Missouri to build a new incinerator on the contaminated land. They continued to burn 265,000 tons of dioxin-contaminated waste until 1997.

Dioxins are a family of chemicals produced as a byproduct during the manufacturing of many pesticides and construction materials like carpeting and PVC. These chemicals exist in the environment attached to soil or dust particles that are invisible to the naked eye.

Dioxins break down slowly. It still threatens public health at low levels. Since industry has mostly stopped producing dioxins, one of the largest contributors releasing harmful dioxins left in the United States is waste incineration. Dioxins have been proven to cause cancer, reproductive and developmental issues, and immune system damage. Rates of cancer such as non-Hodgkin's lymphoma and soft tissue sarcoma rise significantly the closer one lives to the pollutants' source.^[17]

Waste management fees, under the 'polluter pays principle', can help mitigate levels of construction waste.^[18] There is very little information on determining a waste management fee for construction waste created. Many models for this have been created in the past, but they are subjective and flawed. In 2019, a study method was proposed to optimize the construction waste management fee. The new model expands on previous ones by considering life-cycle costs of construction waste and weighs it against the willingness to improve construction waste management. The study was based out of China. China has a large waste management issue, and their landfills are mostly filled in urban areas. The results of the study indicated different waste management fees for metal, wood, and masonry waste as $9.30, $5.92, and $4.25, respectively. The cost of waste management per square meter, or just under 11 square feet, on average was found to be $0.12.^[19] This type of waste management system requires top-down legislative action. It is not a choice the contractor has the luxury of making on his/her own.

In the European Union (EU), there is now significant emphasis on recycling building materials and adopting a cradle-to-grave ideology when it comes to building design, construction, and demolition. Their suggestions are much clearer and easier at the local or regional level, depending on government structure. In the 2016 EU Construction & Demolition Waste Management Protocol, they emphasize the benefits beyond financial gains for recycling such as job creation and reduced landfilling. They also emphasize the consideration of supply and demand geography; if the recycling plants are closer to urban areas than the aggregate quarries this can incentivize companies to use this recycled product even if it is not initially cheaper. In Austria, there are new improvements in the recycling of unusable wood products to be burnt in the creation of cement which offsets the carbon footprint of both products.^[20]

The EU urges local authorities who issue demolition and renovation permits to ensure that a high-quality waste management plan is being followed, and they emphasize the need for post-demolition follow-ups in order to determine if the implemented plans are being followed. They also suggest the use of taxation to reduce the economic advantage of the landfills to create a situation where recycling becomes a reasonable choice financially. However, they do include the fact that the tax should only apply to recyclable waste materials. The main points of how the Europeans choose to address this issue of waste management is through the utilization of the tools given to a governing body to keep its people safe. Unlike in the United States, the EU's philosophy on waste management is not that it is an optional good thing to do when you can but a mandatory part of construction in the 21st century to ensure a healthy future for generations to follow.

Taxing landfill has been most effective in Belgium, Denmark and Austria, which have all decreased their landfill disposal by over 30% since introducing the tax. Denmark successfully cut its landfill use by over 80%, reaching a recycling rate over 60%. In the United Kingdom, all personnel performing builders or construction waste clearance are required by law to be working for a CIS registered business.^[21] However, the waste generation in the UK continues to grow, but the rate of increase has slowed.^[22]

 

A panorama of construction waste in Horton, Norway

The United States has no national landfill tax or fee, but many states and local governments collect taxes and fees on the disposal of solid waste. The California Department of Resource Recycling and Recovery (CalRecycle) was created in 2010 to address the growing C&D waste problem in the United States. CalRecycle aids in the creation of C&D waste diversion model ordinance in local jurisdictions. They also provide information and other educational material on alternative C&D waste facilities. They promote these ordinances by creating incentive programs to encourage companies to participate in the waste diversion practices. There are also available grants and loans to aid organizations in their waste reduction strategies.^[22] According to a survey, financially incentivizing stakeholders to reduce construction waste demonstrates favorable results.  This information provides an alternative way to reduce the cost so that the industry is more careful in their project decisions from beginning to end.^[23]

• ATSDR
• Carcinogen
• Construction dust | Metal dust | Metal swarf | Lead dust | Asbestos | Cement dust | Concrete dust | Wood dust | Paint dust
• Concrete recycling
• COPD
• COSHH
• Demolition waste
• NIEHS
• Particulates | Ultrafine particle
• Power tool
• Recycling
• Silicosis
• VOC
• Waste management
• Welding
• Embodied carbon

• Construction Waste Management Database from the Whole Building Design Guide of the National Institute of Building Sciences